Canada

For adoptions occurring on/after 2025-12-15, the direct s.5.1 grant is unavailable where the adoptive-parent citizenship was itself by descent/abroad AND no adoptive-parent citizen was physically present in Canada >=1,095 days before the adoption (s.5.1(4), the adoption parallel to the descent FGL reform, replaced by S.C. 2025 c.5 s.4(1)); Crown-service exception at s.5.1(5). Affected families may instead use the PR-sponsorship route (whose child is NOT subject to the FGL for their own future children).

Automatic citizenship for any person born in Canada after 1977-02-14 (s.3(1)(a)), UNRESTRICTED by parental immigration status. Sole exception: children of foreign diplomats/consular/UN-agency officers where neither parent is a citizen or PR (s.3(2)). Deemed-Canada extends to Canadian-registered vessels/aircraft (s.2(2)(a)). Unchanged by C-3.

A person born outside Canada after 1977-02-14 is a citizen by descent if, at birth, one parent (other than an adoptive parent) was a citizen (s.3(1)(b)); deemed citizen from birth (s.3(7)(h)). For the first generation born abroad the substantial-connection test does not bite. Genetic/legal-parent link per Kandola 2014 FCA 85.

For a child born outside Canada on/after 2025-12-15 to a Canadian parent who was themselves born/naturalized abroad, citizenship by descent is conferred only if that parent accumulated >=1,095 days physical presence in Canada before the birth (s.3(3) substantial-connection test, as replaced by S.C. 2025 c.5 s.1(8)). Replaces the Bjorkquist-struck absolute first-generation limit. IN FORCE per OIC SI/2025-129.

The s.3(3) substantial-connection limit does NOT apply where the Canadian parent (or grandparent in the adoption pathway) was employed abroad with the Canadian Armed Forces, the federal public administration, or a provincial public service (s.3(5)). Children of such Crown servants pass citizenship by descent without the 1,095-day test.

Citizenship acquired/retained under the Canadian Citizenship Act, S.C. 1946 c.15 (in force 1947-01-01) and its successors to 1977-02-14, now operationalized through the live s.3(1)(d)-(r) historical chain. Pre-1977 maternal-descent discrimination cured following Benner 1997 CanLII 376; many cohorts later restored by C-37/C-3.

Persons who were British subjects in Canada before 1947-01-01 (no Canadian citizenship existed before that date) and Newfoundland & Labrador residents who acquired Canadian citizenship on union 1949-04-01 (s.3(1.01), s.5.1(1)). Status feeds the live historical chain and the s.11(2) women's re-acquisition remedy.

Persons who lost (or never obtained) citizenship under outdated rules — notably the former s.8 retention-failure cohort — restored by Bill C-3 (S.C. 2025 c.5) building on C-37 (2009) and C-24 (2015) which together restored ~20,000. Restoration is by operation of law; affected persons apply for proof of citizenship.

Bill C-3 retroactively confers citizenship by operation of law on persons born outside Canada BEFORE 2025-12-15 who were excluded by the old absolute first-generation limit (second-and-later-generation born-abroad descendants of a Canadian), and cures cases where the linking parent/grandparent died before coming-into-force (s.3(1.5)). Distinct from the s.8 Lost-Canadians cohort (CA-HIS-03). Affected persons apply for proof of citizenship.

Indigenous persons born in Canada are citizens by jus soli s.3(1)(a) like everyone else. Indian Act s.6 REGISTRATION ('status') is a separate federal entitlement, NOT citizenship (Bill S-3 removed sex-based inequities, in force 2017-12-22 + 2019-08-15). The Jay Treaty 1794 is NOT recognised in Canadian law (Francis 1956 CanLII 79 SCC); cross-border claims run through s.35 (Watt v. Liebelt, left open) — never as a citizenship route. Contrast US 8 USC s.1359.

The Minister SHALL grant citizenship to a PR who: is physically present in Canada >=1,095 days within the 5 years before application; filed income tax for 3 of those 5 years; (if 18-54) has CLB/NCLC level 4 language + passes the knowledge test; is not prohibited; and takes the oath. C-6 (2017) reverted C-24's 1,460-days/4-of-6/intent-to-reside regime. Pre-PR days count 0.5 each (max 365). Fee $653.

The Minister shall grant citizenship to a PR minor child of a citizen (or co-applying parent) on application by an authorized person (s.5(2)); no separate physical-presence/language/test for the 5(2) minor. A PR minor without a Canadian/co-applying parent applies under s.5(1) (1,095/5-yr presence) but is exempt from language+test as an under-18. Fee $100.

A PR (or person attached/seconded to the CAF) who has completed 3 years of CAF service within the 6 years before application is exempt from the s.5(1)(c) physical-presence requirement (s.5(1.2)/(1.3)), unless released other than honourably. A fast-track within the s.5(1) naturalization framework recognizing military service.

The Minister shall grant resumption to a former citizen who applies, is not subject to a revocation/removal order, has become a PR, and since ceasing to be a citizen has been physically present in Canada >=365 days in the 2 years before application and met any tax-filing requirement (s.11(1)). CAF service can substitute for the presence requirement (s.11(1.1)/(1.2)).

A woman who, under pre-1947 Canadian law, ceased to be a British subject ONLY by reason of her marriage or her husband's acquisition of a foreign nationality, and who would have been a citizen had the modern Act been in force at her marriage, acquires citizenship immediately on giving the Minister written notice of election (s.11(2)). A gender-remedial, era-specific re-acquisition distinct from general s.11 resumption.

The Minister MAY, in discretion, grant citizenship to alleviate cases of statelessness (a ground added to s.5(4) by C-6 in 2017). Fully discretionary; distinct from the narrow mandatory s.5(5) stateless-bloodline grant. Reviewable on reasonableness (Vavilov 2019 SCC 65).

The Minister MAY, in discretion, grant citizenship to alleviate cases of special and unusual hardship (s.5(4)). Fully discretionary; case-by-case; reviewable on reasonableness. Distinct limb of s.5(4) from statelessness and exceptional-services.

The Minister SHALL, on application, grant citizenship to a person born outside Canada on/after 2025-12-15 who has a birth parent who was a citizen at birth, is under 23, was physically present in Canada >=1,095 days in the 4 years before application, has ALWAYS been stateless, and has no listed terrorism/security convictions (s.5(5)). No oath required (s.5(6)). A narrow MANDATORY grant — distinct from the broad DISCRETIONARY s.5(4) statelessness grant. Live IRCC application route.

The Minister MAY, in discretion, grant citizenship to reward services of an exceptional value to Canada (s.5(4)). Rare, fully discretionary, case-by-case; reviewable on reasonableness. The third distinct limb of s.5(4) alongside statelessness and special-and-unusual-hardship.