Spain

Adoption of a foreign minor by a Spanish national confers Spanish nationality of origin (nacionalidad española de origen) ipso facto from the adoption date per CC Art 19.1. Spanish private international law applies; foreign adoptions recognized per Ley 54/2007 + 1993 Hague Convention. Distinct from CC Art 19.2 late filiation (ES-CBN-03). Adopted child obtains all rights of biological Spanish child. Inscription at Registro Civil mandatory but acquisition is automatic from adoption.

Persons adopted as adults (post-age-18) by Spanish national: 2-year Spanish residence opción at Registro Civil. Cohort-distinctive — most peer EU countries do not recognize adult adoption for nationality purposes.

Spanish nationality of origin (ius soli filial) per CC Art 17.1.b for persons born in Spain to a foreign parent who was also born in Spain. Double-ius-soli framework; distinct from foundling provisions. Excludes children of diplomats in service. Applies regardless of residence status. Acquisition automatic at birth; Registro Civil inscription declarative. Pre-RD 1004/2015 governed by prior Reglamento.

Statelessness-prevention nationality per CC Art 17.1.c — Spanish nationality of origin for persons born in Spain to foreign parents where applicable foreign law would not transmit nationality, creating de facto statelessness. Compliance with 1961 UN Convention on Reduction of Statelessness (Spain ratified 2018). Distinct from foundling Art 17.1.d. Acquisition automatic from birth; documentary proof of non-transmission required at Registro Civil.

Foundling provision per CC Art 17.1.d — Spanish nationality of origin for minor children whose first known location is in Spanish territory and whose parentage is unknown. Rebuttable presumption of Spanish-born until proof of foreign birth/parentage. 1961 UN Statelessness Convention compliance. Distinct from Art 17.1.c statelessness-prevention by anchor (no parental nationality data available). Cessation if foreign parentage later proven.

1-year reduced residence for persons born in Spanish territory (CC Art 22.2.a). Distinct from CC Art 17 (origin) and Art 22.1 (10-year standard). Requires lawful continuous residence + DELE A2 (Instituto Cervantes) + CCSE civics test (Instituto Cervantes) per RD 1004/2015 Art 6. Distinct from ES-BTH-01 (double ius soli with origin status). Confers nationalidad por residencia (acquired status, not of origin).

Option for Spanish nationality per CC Art 20.1.a — for persons under or recently under parental authority (patria potestad) of a Spaniard. Declaration window opens at age of consent and extends to 20 years (per Ley 36/2002). Exercised before Encargado del Registro Civil. Distinct from origin nationality (Art 17) by acquired-status classification. Voluntary acquisition requires renunciation of prior nationality unless dual permitted (Art 24.2 Convenio framework).

Option for nationality per CC Art 20.1.b — for persons whose parent was originally Spanish (nacionalidad de origen) and was born in Spain. No age limit on declaration. Often used by descendants of Spanish emigrants. Connects with Memoria Democrática (Ley 20/2022 DA 8ª) for extended scope. Confers acquired status (not of origin); compare with ES-DSC-01 (origin via ius sanguinis).

Option per CC Art 20.1.c covering late filiation (Art 17.2) and late adoption (Art 19.2) cases. When Spanish filiation or adoption is determined after age 18, applicant has 2-year window from determination date to declare option. Distinct from ES-CBN-01 (patria potestad) and ES-CBN-02 (Spain-born originally-Spanish parent) by trigger event.

Equatorial Guinean nationals: 2-year continuous residence in Spain + DELE A2 + CCSE + Art 23 jura/promesa (renuncia exempt per Art 24.2 7-régimen carve-out). Only African counterparty in Spain's 7-régimen list.

Portuguese nationals: 2-year continuous residence in Spain + DELE A2 (waived in practice) + CCSE + Art 23 jura/promesa (renuncia exempt). Only 7-régimen member without dedicated bilateral Convenio — statutory-unilateral via CE Art 11.3 framer intent.

Successful Ley 12/2015 (closed 2021-09-30) Sephardic acquirers retain Spanish nationality indefinitely + transmit via CC Art 17.1.a base jus sanguinis. Operational post-sunset framework for ~100K-150K cohort. Subject to STS 46/2025+47/2025 Sala Civil Pleno restrictive doctrine.

French nationals: Art 24.2 dual-nat carve-out ONLY (Convenio Montauban BOE-A-2022-4916 EIF 01/04/2022 operates on cessation-renuncia-recuperación axis — Art 23.b + Art 24.1 + Art 26.1.a). NOT in Art 22.1 6-régimen 2y reduction list — French applicants follow standard 10-year residence per Art 22.1 primer inciso. Primera nación fuera del ámbito iberoamericano per mjusticia.gob.es.

Spanish nationality of origin (ius sanguinis) per CC Art 17.1.a — automatic at birth for child of a Spanish parent regardless of place of birth or parent residence. Pre-1982 transmission asymmetry (paternal-only) cured retroactively by CE 1978 and Ley 51/1982. STC 81/1988 affirmed gender equality. Foundational route; baseline against which all other ES routes compare. No documentary deadline; Registro Civil inscription declarative.

Descendants of Spanish-origin parent who lost or did not transmit Spanish nationality at birth: opción acquisition via Art 17.3 + Art 20.1.b (2-year residence). Operationally key for Memoria DA8 successors + post-Sahara apátridas + pre-1990 mujer casada loss cohort.

Sephardic-Jewish naturalization per Ley 12/2015 (closed to new applications 2019-10-01 with extensions to 2021-09-30 in some cases). 132,226 applications received in window. Eligibility required documentary proof of Sephardic origin (rabbinical certificate + genealogical proof + Ladino/Hebrew-language documents) and "special connection to Spain" (DELE A2 + CCSE civics + Spanish cultural/economic ties). Successful pre-closure applicants retain transmission rights to descendants via CC Art 17. Route remains in registry for descendant claims.

Memoria Democrática route per Ley 20/2022 DA 8ª for grandchildren of Spanish exiles, descendants of women who lost Spanish nationality by marriage pre-1978, descendants of those who renounced citizenship under Franco regime. Original window 2022-10-21 to 2024-10-21; extended to 2025-10-22 and again to 2026-10-22 per current Ley 1/2025. Pending appointment preservation per Instrucción DGSJFP 2024-11-05: applicants with pre-deadline electronic appointment may complete after deadline. Requires Spanish consular declaration + genealogical proof to 1st/2nd/3rd grade depending on category.

Memoria Histórica Ley 52/2007 DA 7ª — Spanish nationality for children/grandchildren of original Spanish exiles. Application window: 2008-12-27 to 2011-12-27 (extended once). Superseded by Ley 20/2022 for nationality purposes, but successful 2008-2011 applicants retain rights with transmission to descendants. Distinct from Ley 20/2022 by narrower scope (no women-lost-by-marriage category, no renunciation-under-Franco category).

Carta de Naturaleza per CC Art 21.1 — discretionary Royal Decree (Real Decreto) grant for exceptional circumstances. Granted by Consejo de Ministros recommendation, signed by HM the King. No residence requirement; no language test; no renunciation requirement (Art 24.2 framework applies). Rare; typically 30-80 grants per year. Used for athletes, artists, scientists, religious figures, exceptional service to Spain. Not a CBI (no investment qualification per Spanish law; Ley 14/2013 talent/investment residence was separate residency framework, partially repealed by Ley 1/2025 effective 2025-01-09 which eliminated €500K real-estate Golden Visa).

1-year reduced residence for spouse or widow/widower of Spanish national per CC Art 22.2.d. Marriage must be legally subsisting at application; widowhood without prior divorce/separation also qualifies. DELE A2 + CCSE civics required per RD 1004/2015 Art 6. Distinct from declarative option routes by residence requirement. Subject to standard nationality renunciation unless Convenio with origin state permits dual nationality (Art 24.2).

Spain has NO military-service pathway to nationality. Servicio militar obligatorio suspended 2001-12-31 via Real Decreto 247/2001 + LO 5/2005 de la Defensa Nacional (all-volunteer professional FAS). Tercio de Extranjeros (Spanish Foreign Legion) does NOT confer nationality (cohort-distinctive vs FR Légion étrangère 'Français par le sang versé').

International Brigades historical route — Spanish nationality for foreign nationals who served in International Brigades during Spanish Civil War 1936-1939. Original framework: Decreto 39/1996 + Ley 3/2005 articulation. Superseded by Memoria Histórica Ley 52/2007 DA 7ª and now Memoria Democrática Ley 20/2022. Surviving Brigadistas and descendants currently apply via ES-HIS-02 (Ley 20/2022). Route retained for historical citation and pre-2007 grant continuity.

10-year standard residence per CC Art 22.1 — baseline naturalization route. Continuous lawful residence in Spanish territory. DELE A2 (Instituto Cervantes) + CCSE civics test (Instituto Cervantes) per RD 1004/2015 Art 6. Renunciation of prior nationality required (Art 23.b) unless Convenio with origin state permits dual nationality (Art 24.2 — 12 Ibero-American Convenios + Sephardic + Andorra + Philippines + EG + Portugal). Plan Choque DGSJFP 2022-2025 reduces processing backlog.

5-year reduced residence for persons with Spanish refugee status per CC Art 22.1 párr.3 + Ley 12/2009 reguladora del derecho de asilo. 1951 UN Refugee Convention compliance. DELE A2 + CCSE preserved. Renunciation of prior nationality NOT required per Ley 12/2009 (cannot return to country of persecution).

2-year reduced residence per CC Art 22.1 párr.2 for nationals of: Ibero-American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela), Andorra, Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Portugal, and Sephardic Jews (origin status, including those acquired via Ley 12/2015 process). Dual nationality retention per Art 24.2 Convenios framework (12 bilateral conventions in force). DELE A2 + CCSE required.

LO 1/2025 Disposición Final 21ª renders Arts 63-67 Ley 14/2013 sin contenido. EIF 3-Apr-2025 (3-month deferral); DT1 application-date-preservation + DT2 holder-retention transitional. Spain ANTICIPATORIO ~4 months pre-CJEU C-181/23 Commission v Malta — first-mover not compliance-forced alignment. Cohort-FIRST Tier-1 ES-CF-V5-NEW-003.

Proposición de Ley 122/000072 (Cortes Generales XV Legislatura, SUMAR sponsor) proposes substantive expansion of Ley 51/1982 Sahara apátridas framework + Memoria DA8-style descendant restitution for Saharawi cohort. Cohort-FIRST Tier-1 formalization of post-Madrid-Accords Saharawi descendant pathway beyond current STS Sala 1ª restrictive doctrine line (STS 207/2020 + 444/2020 + 681/2021 + 1711/2024).

Active Cortes initiatives cluster post-Memoria DA8 closure: CGCEE permanent reform paradigm (cohort-FIRST Tier-2 diaspora-input mechanism) + PL 122/000230 SUMAR doble-nat (potential 8th régimen ampliación) + PL 122/000054 VOX restrictive (unlikely passage) + PLO 09/12/2025 Plurilingüismo (indirect impact on Art 22.4 DELE A2 + CCSE administered in castellano).

Recovery of Spanish nationality (recuperación) per CC Art 26.1 — for former Spanish citizens who lost nationality. Standard requirements: (a) legal residence in Spain at time of recovery (waived for emigrants and children of emigrants per Art 26.1.b); (b) declaration before Encargado del Registro Civil; (c) Registro Civil inscription. Foreign nationality typically retained per Art 26.2 transitional framework. Authorization by Ministerio de Justicia required for ex-Spaniards who lost nationality due to certain causes (Art 26.1.c).

Descendants of Republican exile + Spanish emigrants by political/economic reasons + Brigadas Internacionales + pre-1978 women loss-by-marriage cohort. Window: 21-Oct-2022 EIF → 21-Oct-2024 original → 22-Oct-2025 prórroga → CLOSED. Cohort-FIRST DUAL CLOSED-WINDOW restitution paralela (with Sephardic Ley 12/2015).

Possession and continued use (consolidación) per CC Art 18 — Spanish nationality consolidated by 10 years of good-faith use under title inscribed in Registro Civil. Curative pathway when underlying title (filiation, option, residence) is later invalidated, but good-faith continuous exercise during 10-year period validates nationality. Distinct from origin or residence routes. Rare in practice; documentary proof of inscribed title required.

Automatic loss on voluntary acquisition of foreign nationality (Art 24.1 CC; 3-year clock + declaración de conservación escape). 7-régimen Art 24.2 carve-out exempts Iberoamericano-12 + Filipinas + Andorra + Guinea Ecuatorial + Portugal + Sefardíes + France acquirers.

Spanish emigrants abroad using exclusively foreign nationality lose Spanish nat after 3 years unless declaración de conservación filed. TS Sala 3ª doctrine: pasaporte renovación at consulate = declaración Art 24.3 (practical exemption for ~3M Spanish diaspora cohort).

Sanción-revocation for naturalized Spaniards: foreign army service against ES or fraudulent acquisition. CE Art 11.2 ABSOLUTE BAR for nacionalidad de origen — born-Spanish constitutionally protected. Cohort-FIRST Tier-1 constitutional-rank firewall.

Procedural precondition for naturalisation: renuncia of prior nationality + Art 23.a jura/promesa + Art 23.c Registro Civil inscription. 7-régimen + Sefardíes EXEMPTED from Art 23.b renuncia — dual nat preserved. STS 1264/2024 affects Art 23 procedures via RD 1004/2015 Art 12.1 nullification.

Judicial nullity of acquisition for fraud/concealment per CC Art 25.2 — 15-year MF action via Sala 1ª Civil (NOT Sala 3ª contencioso-administrativo per VC-ES-XCT-05-001). Cohort-FIRST Tier-2 architectural distinction from Art 25.1 sanción; effects perjudiciales para terceros de buena fe excluded.